Translation in an expositive text

In a expositive text, the author´s arguments are presented by means of different stylistic resources, for instance, write makes use of authorities in the field such as testimonies, quotations.

ING Funtions

After a preposition

Verbs with ing is the only possible verbal form that functions as object to prepositions. When after the verb comes a preposition we must use the "-ing form". For example:

- before purshasing

- For beirng

- with becoming

 She isn't very happy about  leaving  her child alone in the house.

There are some common grammatical errors. When we make the mistake of using a bare infinitives or to-infinitives instead of gerunds after prepositions. For example

- She isn't very happy about  leave  her child alone in the house.

- She isn't very happy about to leave  her child alone in the house.

Source: http://suite101.com/a/how-use-gerunds-after-prepositions


Present participle

We use the -ing form after a noun. The term "participle" refers here to the gerund as well as to what is traditionally called the present participle. For Example:


- Children shouting

- Women crying

There are two basic types can be distinguished, depending on the underlying relationship of the preceding noun modifier to the head.

1.- The premodifying noun is the underlying direct object of the verb:

House building <- The building of house <- (someone) Build houses

2.- This is less productive, category the preceding noun, has an underlying adverbial relationship of place, time, or manner) to the head noun.:

 night dancing <- dancing at night <- (someone) dance at night

Source: https://sites.google.com/site/agrammaroferrors/1-1-the-noun-phrase/1-9/1-9-1


As a present participle clause

We use the -ing form after a noun and before of related noun or object. For Example:

- Women eating chocolate

- I'm in your house (noun) eating (gerund) your food (obj). 

As a gerund phrase

In a gerund phrase the ing-form is a noun so they will be subjects, subject complements or objects in the sentence. It means that gerund is a verb form which functions as a noun, and it can includes other modifiers. Example:

Creating a good atmosfher is important for a class

Is a gerund phrase because the sentence begin with a gerund as a noun (creating) and then it have a verb (is).

Not Always a gerund phrase begins with -ing form. Sometimes it are after of the verb. For example:

Mr Wilson aren't prepared to authorise climbing the cliffs in the dark

Common errors with a gerund phrase:

-Gerund Phrase
Eating blackberries without washing them will make you ill.

-Other grammatical form no gerund phrase

Eating blackberries without washing them, people have a big health problems because they become ill due not washing their fruit

How to

Following instructions

Baking a cake

Cleaning a house

Doing homework

Driving a car

Continous or progressive form (in future, past o present tense)

In this case the ing form is used with verb to be and action in progress


I´m talking right now

I will be talking in two hours

I was talking yesterday

As an adjetive

That sentence uses an adjective with ing form, for describe a situation or characteristic of something

The commonest -ing adjectives are:

amusing	shocking	surprising	frightening
interesting	disappointing	exciting	tiring
worrying	boring	terrifying	annoying

I read a very interesting article in the newspaper today

That Dracula film was absolutely terrifying

Caracas is an exciting city

source:http://www.englishgrammarsecrets.com/ingform/menu.php


As a noun

When it is used like a noun it may or may not have an article before it.

The smoking goes against your health

Smoking goes against your health

It can also be part of a 'noun phrase'.

Speaking to an audience is always stressful.

Swimming after work is very relaxing.

source: http://www.englishgrammarsecrets.com/ingform/menu.php


After certains words

The gerund has the same form as the present participle (V-ing)

It is often used after the following verbs:

admit, avoid, consider, delay, deny, detest, dread, enjoy, envisage, fancy, feel like, finish, imagine, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practise, recall, regret, resent, risk, stop, suggest


Stop smoking

Keep studying

I like eating chocolate

Types of common texts

Types of common text

Today we are going to study four specific types:

• Argumentative
• Expositive
• Comparison & contrast
• Cause & effect 

ARGUMENTATIVE:

It is a text when there is the presence of the author. In other words, when the author conveys his ideas using the explicit or implicit arguments.

Explicit arguments:

It means to state them clearly. Here, the writer is including himself through the first person and certain beliefs are arguments such as: true versus false, for versus against, these beliefs are imposed by him and will depend upon his intention. Some linguistics signals:

Linguistics signals

I think                            I believe                         To me                             My guess

Personally                      In our studies                  I suppose                        To myself

In my opinion                  One considers…              We agree                        To my view

Oneself                           We                                    Us

Implicit arguments

It is a proposition is implicit in an argument when it is part of the argument intended by the writer either as a process of forming reasons (premises) or of drawing conclusions, but at the same time it has not been explicitly stated by him in the text. An evaluation of the text can be done by the author through his comments in an omniscient way. We can use it:

 -expresses approval or disapproval by his choice of words

-presents positive or negative points, effective and ineffective good reasons, or a balance of both

-present his argument explicitly or implicitly.
Some linguistics signals:

Linguistics signals

It is impossible to…                      It is important…                            It is fundamental…        

It is well know…                           It is rare…                                    It deserves special 

It is simple…                                It could be dangerous…                  It other words…

EXPOSITIVE:

In an expositive text, the author’s arguments are presented by means of different stylistic resources, for instance, a writer makes use of authorities in the field such as testimonies, quotations. To support his thesis the author could to cite another source of information like statistics, comments, opions, suggestion, etc. Some linguistics signals:

Linguistic signals

You can find in this kind of texts:

Verbs

acount for                       change                            declare                           claim                    

expose                            accuse                             affirm                             go down

decrease                         estimates                        express                           report

Expression and phrases:

Authorities think that…                   Researchers believe…             Experts support…

Really                                             according to                          as a matter of fact

Nearly                                            roughly                                 series or sequence of events

COMPARISON & CONTRAST:

Comparison/Contrast text shows how two or more people, places, or things are alike or different. Authors use descriptions of the items being compared to illustrate the differences or the similarities of the items being compared. Words that signal this type of text structure are but, however, although, yet, similarly, on the other hand, while, and for instance. May be used to depict the similarities and differences in facts, events, items, or concepts. Some linguistics signals:

Linguistic signals

Different from                                      same as                                        similar                 

As opposed to                                      instead of                                      instead of

Although                                              however                                        compared with

As well as                                           either… or                                      but

CAUSE & EFFECT

Cause/Effect is used to show how the facts, events, or concepts result due to other facts, events or concepts. Words that signal this type of text structure are because, since, therefore, if…then, as a result of, thus, and hence. A graphic organizer may be used to represent the relationship between the causes and effects. Some linguistics signals:

Linguistics signals

Because                                               Yet                                    Also  

Since                                                   Consequently                   This led to… so

If… then                                             Nevertheless                     Accordingly

Because og                                         As a result of                    In order to

May be due to                                    For this reason                 not only but 

Source: "Translation as a Tool for the Teaching of Englisg Text: A Discoruse Analysis." Delgado, Marbella. Lozada, Dalia. Santoyo, Francisco.

http://www.dayofreading.org/DOR10HO/expository%20short%20texts.pdf

Translation Methods

Let’s check out the methods that we use to start to translate… 

TRANSLATION METHODS

1) The Semantic-Semiotic Method:

-Emphasis on interpretation of meaning

-Importace of implicitness

-Semantic component allows decoding the extralinguistic elements

Semantic - Semiotics is not just an act of reading, but an attitude of exploration of what background there any significance, its roots and the mechanisms that support it. It mean that semiotic studies the linguistic signs in the context, "the symbolic aspect of the text that results from the interaction between the knowledge of the author expressed in the text and the translator's sociocultural background to interpret it" (Delgado; Lozada; Zantoyo, 2009). Because of that the same text can have different translations.
 
Ex. The chief executives of the UN:

- Los jefes ejecutivos de las Naciones Unidas
- Comite ejecutivo de las Naciones Unidas

2) The Communicative Method

-Emphasis on communication

-Meaning more important that form.

3) The Adaptation Method

-Emphasis on the receiver of the text.

-Choice of lenguange determined by socio-cultural shift.

-Activation of socio-cultural Backgrouned.

-Completely different form of language.

In this method the translator decides to use a different sentence or phrase to express the original meaning. Therefore the emphasis is placed on the receiver and the translator tries to adapt it according of social - cultural manners or knowledge of readers.

Ex.Proxy War

The literal translation is:

- Guerra de Poder

The adaptation is:

- Guerra por Encargo

4) The Literal Method

-Exact lexical and structural reproductione equivalence between the lenguages.

-Borrowing.

-Calque.

-Literal.

5) The Dynamic Equivalence Method

-Applicaction of the advances of discourse analysis of textual and literal criticism, of socio-semantics and semiotics.

6) TheEquivalence Method

-The meaning is given by ignoring the structure.

 

7) The Critical Method.

-Discovery of the author’s ideological universe.

Source: Translation as a tool for the teaching of English Texts: A Discourse Analysis. Delgado, Marbella; Lozada, Dalia; Santoyo, Francisco.

Acronyms and Initialism

An acronym is an abbreviation formed from the initial components in a phrase or a Word.

There is no universal agreement on the precise definition of various names for such abbreviations nor on written usage. In English and most other languages, such abbreviations historically had limited use, but they became much more common in the 20th century.

 Acronyms are a type of word formation process, and they are viewed as a subtype of blending. Acronyms were used in Rome before the Christian era. For example, the official name for the Roman Empire, and the Republic before it, was abbreviated as SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus). Inscriptions dating from antiquity, both on stone and on coins, use a lot of abbreviations and acronyms to save room and work. For example, Roman first names, of which there was only a small set, were almost always abbreviated. Common terms were abbreviated too, such as writing just "F" for "filius", meaning "son of", a very common part of memorial inscriptions mentioning people. Grammatical markers were abbreviated or left out entirely if they could be inferred from the rest of the text.

TYPES:

Pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters
AIDS: acquired immune deficiency síndrome
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Scuba: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
Laser: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Pronounced as a word, containing non-initial letters
Amphetamine: alpha-methyl-phenethylamine
Gestapo: Geheime Staatspolizei (secret state police)
Interpol: International Criminal Police Organization
Nabisco: National Biscuit Company

Pronounced as a word, containing a mixture of initial and non-initial letters 
Necco: New England Confectionery Company
Radar: radio detection and ranging

Pronounced as a word or as a string of letters, depending on speaker or context
 FAQ: ([fæk] or ef-a-cue) frequently asked question
IRA: When used for Individual Retirement Account, can be pronounced as letters (i-ar-a) or as a word [ˈaɪrə].
SAT(s): ([sæt] or ess-a-tee) (previously) Scholastic Achievement (or Aptitude) Test(s)(US) or Standard Assessment Test(s) (UK), now claimed not to stand for anything.
SQL: ([siːkwəl] or ess-cue-el) Structured Query Language.

Pronounced as a combination of spelling out and a word 
CD-ROM: (cee-dee-[rɒm]) Compact Disc read-only memory
IUPAC: (i-u-[pæk]) International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
JPEG: (jay-[pɛɡ]) Joint Photographic Experts Group
SFMOMA: (ess-ef-[moʊmə]) San Francisco Museum of Modern Art Pronounced only as a string of letters
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
OEM: Original Equipment Manufacturer
USA: The United States of America

Pronounced as a string of letters, but with a shortcut

W3C: (W three C) World Wide Web Consortium

C4ISTAR: (C four I star) Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance[14] Multi-layered acronyms

GAIM (former name of Pidgin): GTK+ AOL Instant Messenger GIMP: GNU Image Manipulation Program VHDL: VHSIC hardware description language, where VHSIC stands for very-high-speed integrated circuit. Recursive acronyms, in which the abbreviation refers to itself GNU: GNU's not Unix! WINE: WINE Is Not an Emulator (originally, WINdows Emulator) PHP: PHP hypertext pre-processor (formerly personal home page) These may go through multiple layers before the self-reference is found: HURD: HIRD of Unix-replacing daemons, where "HIRD" stands for "HURD of interfaces representing depth" Pseudo-acronyms, which consist of a sequence of characters that, when pronounced as intended, invoke other, longer words with less typing. CQ: cee-cue for "seek you", a code used by radio operators IOU: i-o-u for "I owe you" (a true acronym would be IOY) K9: kay-nine for "canine", used to designate police units utilizing dogs Q8: cue-eight for "Kuwait" Acronyms whose last abbreviated word is often redundantly included anyway ATM machine: Automated Teller Machine machine HIV virus: Human Immunodeficiency Virus virus PIN number: Personal Identification Number number LCD display: Liquid Crystal Display display TIME FOR FUN!

Do you think you don’t know acronyms? Let watch this funny video where you’ll see that use them more than you think you do.

Caution, can be considered an insulting video.

Function of “that”

"That" can be used in five differents forms.

(1)      As a demonstrative adjetive

Ex. That pen is mine

(2)      As a demonstrative pronoum (subject)

Ex. That is a problem

(3)      As a demonstrative pronoum (object)

Ex. You know that

(4)      As a conjunction

Ex. The Queen announced in January that she would step down to make way for a younger generation.

(5)      As a relative clause

Ex. The Car that I sold her is good

And then we use an article of New York Times for show u how we can use "That"

Cuba’s ability to meet every citizen’s needs has declined.

But dotted among the throngs of state employees bused in before dawn to observe International Workers’ Day, there was a novel, and increasingly favored, breed: entrepreneurs whose private businesses the government is counting on to absorb thousands of the state workers it considers redundant and hopes to shed.

Their presence — albeit limited — at one of the most important fixtures in the Castro-era calendar reflects the shifting economic mix in a country where, for decades, private enterprise was anathema and the state officially provided everything anyone could need, from a job to the sugar people put in their coffee.

But the state’s ability to dothat(DPO) has declined significantly over the years, with salaries and subsidies like food rations unable to cover even basic needs.

“This is a way of showing solidarity with the workers and of showing that(C) we, too, are workers,” said Orlando Alain Rodríguez, a former sommelier at a state-run hotel who opened a restaurant on a busy intersection in downtown Havana nine months ago.

“I have 19 employees with me, people who otherwise might not have jobs,” said Mr. Rodríguez, clad, along with his staff, in a yellow T-shirt that(RC) bore the name of his restaurant, Waoo Snack Bar.

The government seemed keen to send that(DA) message, too. Carmen Rosa López, second secretary of the Cuban Workers’ Union, expressed hope before the march that(C) entrepreneurs would come. “For us, they are all workers who contribute to the development of the country,” she said, according to a state-run news agency.

That(DPS) said, entrepreneurs were a tiny minority in the river of public servants and employees of state-owned companies that(C) flowed, waving placards calling for “prosperous and sustainable socialism” to the plaza, where President Raúl Castro stood beneath a huge statue of José Martí, the revolutionary and poet.

A sea of red-clad Venezuelans and Cubans held banners dedicated to Hugo Chavez, the Venezuelan leader and beneficent ally of Cuba who recently died, while a truck mounted with television screens projected pictures of the smiling former leader to the crowd.

Groups of actors and artists lent the march a carnival atmosphere, and even at 7 a.m. instructions blaring from loudspeakers were all but drowned out by drummers leading a crush of workers raising their hands and swaying their hips to a conga. Students from the National Schools of Art walked on stilts; one peeped out from a huge, papier-mâché figure of an independence fighter. Farther back, a female sailor in a crisp white uniform jiggled from one foot to another in a barely suppressed salsa move.

Since late 2010 when the government began issuing new licenses for Cubans to work for themselves and employ one another, more than a quarter of a million entrepreneurs and their employees have joined the private sector, taking the total to about 400,000.

Economy Minister Adel Yzquierdo told the National Assembly in December that(RC), including independent farmers who lease land from the government, the number of nonstate workers was 1.1 million, double the figure in 2010. Mr. Yzquierdo said the government had, over the past two years, cut more than 350,000 people from the bloated public sector, which still employs well over four million Cubans out of a population of about 11.2 million.

The government has also turned over about 2,000 small state-owned businesses to their employees, according to news reports, part of a much-anticipated but closely guarded plan to create business cooperatives.

Many Cuban entrepreneurs and economists say the growth of the private sector has been excruciatingly slow. There is still no wholesale market from which businesses can buy the goods they need, and the government still limits the types of businesses open to entrepreneurs to fewer than 200, a situation that(C) some hope will improve with the expansion of cooperatives.

HAVANA — In many ways, it was a typical May Day: Hundreds of thousands of Cuban workers — doctors, sailors, dancers, bank clerks — marched Wednesday toward this city’s vast Revolution Plaza, waving flags, holding aloft banners that(C) proclaimed fidelity to socialism and tooting plastic horns. 

      Demonstrative adjetive(DA)

Demonstrative pronoum (subject) (DPS)

Demonstrative pronoum (object) (DPO)

Conjunction (C)

Relative clause (RC)

Source:

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/02/world/americas/on-may-day-in-havana-a-nod-to-capitalism.html?ref=world